Shoreline change is a gradual natural process, but with increasing anthropogenic activities and climate change, such processes have quickened. This leads to a direct impact on adjacent coastal populations. The coastline of Navsari and Valsad in southern Gujarat is 96.98 km long and it has undergone significant change from 1985 to 2020. Approximately 60.81 km2 of land area has been eroded in the last 35 years. Erosion is impacting the livelihoods of the local people living in close proximity to the sea, especially those who depend on tourism, agriculture, and fishing, the region’s economic base. Navsari and Valsad are important fishing districts, providing employment to many people (Handbook on Fisheries Statistics, 2018). Tourism activities have led to increased coastal stress, especially the Tithal beach in Valsad and areas around it. The integrated coastal vulnerability index states that the coastal stretch of Navsari is under the high vulnerable zone while Valsad has high moderate and low vulnerability. The majority of the coastal tract of Navsari and Valsad is categorized under high erosion zone.
Local people face an array of complex issues including loss of land, property, and livelihoods. This study evaluates shoreline erosion from 1985 to 2020, using Landsat images, and then with the support of quantitative and qualitative analysis of shoreline change and their impacts discusses how the shoreline change significantly affects income. It finds that the local people have become more vulnerable in terms of livelihood opportunities. The study suggests that with considerable erosion along the coast, stronger measures need to be applied and bring proper coastal governance mechanisms to the forefront, focusing both on social and ecological protection.
Coastal regions have encountered increased shoreline change in the form of erosion that threatens the livelihoods of already vulnerable coastal communities around the world. Coastal erosion can be defined as the removal of material from the coast by wave action, tidal currents, or human activity, typically causing a landward retreat of the coastline (U.K. Geohazard Note, 2012). Recently, developed nations have addressed issues related to their coastal resources, but developing nations have lagged behind on coastal zone management. The vulnerability of coastal communities has not been mentioned in the India’s National Action Plan for Climate Change. The absence of coastal management suggests that the concerned organizations have yet to understand the magnitude of the potential effects on coastal communities.
Erosion is a natural process that occurs as transport of sediments away from the shoreline is not balanced by newer sediments being deposited onto the coast (Pandian P.K., et al., 2004). Apart from natural processes, human-induced factors such as dams or reservoirs, dredging, mining, and water extraction (Coastal Engineering Manual, 2002) can also be responsible for erosion. Coastal erosion becomes challenging when local populations lack the means to accommodate change. An extremely urban coastal area will undoubtedly face erosion-related problems. Until and unless we have knowledge of the natural behavior of the coast, we cannot attempt to formulate a sustainable, economically rational and socially acceptable coastal management strategy (Murali, R. M., Kumar, P. D., 2015).The problem of coastal erosion has been acknowledged by the scientific community and government establishments in India (Nayak S., 2017). However, there are many complex issues faced by locals like loss of land, property, and livelihoods that have not been properly documented. Local fishermen are especially vulnerable.
The commercialization of the fishing industry has led to over-exploitation of fish stocks. Mechanized boats and trawlers have further marginalized small-scale fishermen. Erosion is one more threat to them. In many areas, hard structures such as sea walls were built to protect the coast, but these eventually contribute further to erosion. Shoreline change is a gradual, natural process, but anthropogenic activities and climate change can amplify such processes. Shoreline retreat causes the backward movement of the coast naturally. But when the shoreline is obstructed by man-made structures, the coast does not have free movement of sand which leads to permanent loss of the coast. With fish stocks shrinking and investments in large scale fishing, small-scale fishermen look for better livelihood opportunities and turn to the tourism industry, an important and increasing part in the economy of the Navsari and Valsad coastal belts (Figure 1, Figure 2). Such individuals are not trained or educated for such work, and tourism organizations have not been willing to invest in training them. Even as such earnings, small as they might be, would be a positive outcome for locals. Suitable training is needed in order to improve local living standards. Yet tourism too is complicated by erosion. In the Valsad district of Gujarat, new construction has been devoted to tourism. These projects have often disregarded coastal zone regulation rules, which can lead to construction failure. Inadequate coastal zone regulations and enforcement increase shoreline erosion.
India’s western coast is one of the most populated areas in the world. Many important coastal cities are located along the coast. The length of 1624.4 kilometers out of 7500 kilometres on the mainland of India is directly affected by coastal erosion (Kankara R.S., et.al., 2018). The total population in the coastal districts is 171 million (Census of India, 2011), which is almost 14.2% of the total population of India. The coastal length of Gujarat is about 1214 km. covering 14 coastal districts (CPDAC, 2015). The coastline of Gujarat is mainly divided into 4 regions:
The districts of Navsari and Valsad form a part of the south Gujarat coastline (Figure 3). The length of the entire southern coastal Gujarat coast is 200 kilometers beginning from Bharuch, Surat, Navsari up till Valsad (CPDAC, 2015). Changes in the shoreline have been a continuous process in this area. Studies conducted earlier have shown that, changes in the dune morphology of sandy coast along the Gujarat shoreline has speeded up due to storm characteristics and various human activities at present (Mukhopadhyay R., Karisiddaiah S.M., 2014).
The length of the coastline from Navsari to Valsad is 96.98 km. It has been observed that from 1985 to 2020 the shoreline changed considerably. Erosion occurred in 88.50 km of the shoreline and accretion in 3.66 km. while only 4.73 km. of the coast has remained stable (Table 1). The coast has undergone changes caused by patterns of both erosion and accretion. (Mahapatra M., et.al, 2014). From 1985 to 2020, the coastal belt of Navsari and Valsad lost 60.81 km2 of area to the sea, which has limited the livelihood option and income for the local people. The agricultural lands closer to the coast have uninterrupted intrusion of salt water, which has diminished the land’s fertility, making it unfit for agriculture.
| District (kms) | Accretion Length (kms) | Erosion Length (kms) | Stable Length (kms) | Total Length (kms) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Navsari | 0.00 | 23.35 | 0.00 | 23.35 |
| Valsad | 3.66 | 65.24 | 4.73 | 73.63 |
| Total | 3.66 | 88.59 | 4.73 | 96.98 |
The seawall of 665 meters was constructed on the Tithal beach in Valsad; this urban tourism center is protected with concrete walls, and the other surrounding small villages, one of them being Nani Danti, have sand and boulder embankments (CPDAC, 2015) ), while so many other places have been allowed to erode. This shows the disparity between authorities in the management of the coastline. Already some villages have partly sunk and face on-going erosion threat. Many villagers have suffered substantial damages. The problems resulting from shoreline change could be disastrous for rural coastal population who generally have little savings and no alternative sources of income. Thus, with the increasing power of the sea, stronger measures are to be applied to face such threats (USAID, 2009).Figure 2, uses Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 7 ETM images from the years 1985, 2000 and 2020 to evaluate the area affected by shoreline change. The shoreline of the Navsari and Valsad were digitized as line features from Landsat images. Shorelines representing different years are presented by overlying together. Quantification of the area of shoreline erosion is done by digitisation as polygon features using ArcGIS software.
Shoreline change analysis has revealed that the entire stretch extending from Navsari to Valsad, with few exceptions, is under the threat of rapid erosion. It is estimated that from 1985 to 2020 about 60.81 km2 of the coast has been eroded in the last 35 years. Navsari lost 11.87 km2 area of the coast and Valsad lost 48.94 km2 area of the coast (Figure 4). In the Machhiwad village of Navsari it has been observed that its distance from the shoreline was 2377.15 meters in 1985, whereas the distance decreased to 1801.32 meters in 2000 and 1675.82 in the year 2020. The shoreline has shifted inland 702.33 meters in the last 35 years. Sediment supply from the rivers has also diminished, leading to relative sea level rise and erosion along the coast. Studies done in India and abroad on river deltas find that construction of dams and canal links affects the sediment supply; this is the case in Purna river delta, one of the major rivers of Gujarat that rises in the Sahyadri hill (Table 2, Figure 5).
| Erosion at different villages along Navsari and Valsad coast | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Village | 1985 Coastal Length (m) | 2000 Coastal Length (m) | 2020 Coastal Length (m) | Change from 1985 to 2020 |
| Machhiwad (Navsari) | 2377.15 | 1801.32 | 1675.82 | 702.33 |
| Nani Danti | 1845.07 | 143.207 | 28.179 | 1816.89 |
Study shows that the coastline of the Nani Danti village of Valsad has shifted 1816.89 meters during the last 35 years (Table 2). Illegal sand mining is common in Ambica River north of Nani danti, which also decreases the sediment influx to the coast and has been an additional cause of coastal erosion. Human activities also aggravate the fragile coastal tract in Navsari and Valsad.
The 1986 Environment Protection Act created the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (CRZ) 2011. The provisions of the CRZ state that no construction should be done in the area between the Low Tide Line (LTL) and the High Tide Line (HTL) and even in the area falling within 500 meters of the landward side of the Highest High Tide Line (CRZ Notification, 2011). Ignorance of these provisions has resulted in development of new small settlements along the coast in Valsad and Navsari. New houses, resorts, and hotels have been built in Valsad, in violation of the rules of CRZ. The government is actively engaging in several coastline protection measures to lessen the impact of coastal erosion. However, such measures are confined to only a small stretch of the coastal tract. Official efforts along the coastline of Valsad and Navsari are not sufficient to protect the area as more area needs protection rather than few pockets of coastline. In order to maintain the overall balance of the coastal morphology as well as the environment, care and awareness are required from every sector including local people, the scientific community and state government, starting from the grass-root level. (Santra A. et.al., 2013).
This section of the paper relies on information from field surveys, interviews, and discussions with locals to discuss how alterations in the coastal zone have directly impacted adjacent coastal populations in environmental; economic and social terms. The main consequences of coastal erosion experienced by these people are loss of housing structures and property, displacement of population, loss of sources of income and tourism loss.
Erosion can intensify coastal flooding, resulting in salt water intrusion into agricultural land, making the soil infertile and drinking water unfit for consumption. The fishing communities rely on the naturally available beach space for various purposes like drying of fish, mending of nets, parking boats, and many more. So there is a direct association on livelihoods with structural barriers. The shrinking of beach space due to erosion or construction of coastal structures plays a very substantial role and direct impact on the livelihoods of those coastal fishing communities that depend on the beach-space. Seawalls have the most significant impact on livelihoods because they block and restrict access to the sea and fully occupy the beach-space.
A change in the shoreline not only affects sources of income but also in some cases displaces people from their homes. Population displacement further leads to reduced economic conditions; the displaced population tends to remain nearby by preference, hoping to retain accessibility to livelihood resources (Hutton D., Haque E., 2003).
Many households in Machhiwad village and Nani Danti village have had to retreat as the coastline came nearer to their homes. Earlier, with smaller populations and unoccupied land available in rural areas, people could find other places for relocation. With the region’s increasing population, relocation has become a difficult task due to the absence of available land. Interviews revealed that the majority of the population had been displaced some 20 to 25 years ago. According to locals, approximately 100 to 150 families moved out gradually due to the inundation of houses. A resident of Nani Danti said that, during the monsoon season, when the sea is rough, water enters deep inside the village and covers houses, streets, and open lands. He added that sometimes the high tide is more than 6 feet in height, rendering the protection walls useless.
We were told, however, that in the past five years no major displacement has taken place. This may be due to two reasons: that a greater part of the affected people had previously moved out or that no major erosion took place during this time. Still, those living parallel to the embankment complained about regular flooding and the waves crossing over the embankment during high tides and storms. In interviews, another reason emerged as important. Some said, they did not want to shift their home as they did not have enough money to relocate and resettle, and they also assumed that the extension work of the embankment would be completed soon and they would be protected by concrete walls (Figure 6, Figure 7).
In India land is considered the most valuable asset, so loss of land can pauperize a man. When families retreat or relocate, they generally carry all their belongings with them, but land cannot be retained. In Navsari and Valsad, none of the families relocated until all their land was eroded away. Thus the people living close to the shore continued to suffer losses in terms of land for as long as they could hold out. The Nani Danti village is located in a sensitive position along the sea coast, a narrow strip of land jutting out into the sea; and its elevation is slightly higher than the adjacent villages which are said to be below sea level. Usually during monsoon, paddy is cultivated in Nani Danti and adjacent villages. The high tides during the monsoon, sea water enters Nani Danti village and adjacent villages, inundating paddy fields in spite of the steps already taken to avert the erosion by piling up stones and sand bags. The dwellings of fishermen, fish drying yards and standing paddy crops are damaged. It can be noted that the effect of salt water would adversely affect the paddy crop in the ensuing seasons also (Lipton A.P., et.al., 1987). In Nani Danti, along with fishing, agriculture is also one of the principal livelihood options, but with the loss of land agriculture is lost. Land has other values; it can be used as an investment, a security for a loan, or as a capital asset in times of need (Figure 8, Figure 9). The retreating population not only loses its capital assets but also its economic strength.
Two primary activities in the area are fishing and agriculture. Farmers reported that loss of agricultural land due to submergence and salt water intrusion forced them to look for alternative sources of income. Macchiwad and Nani Danti had large agricultural plots that have become infertile. Fishers spoke of their risks. There were several causes aside from erosion that people mention for such a shift--decreasing marine fish catch, the dominance of mechanized boats and trawlers, high maintenance and capital intensive costs despite low returns, unstable and volatile income and high risk investment. Dry fish businesses are also a new activity that generates income for many locals. It is a cheap and effective method in which the local fishermen dry the fishes in sun and wind, then smoke and salt them to increase their shelf life. The product is easily transported to the market for selling.
Many of the small fishermen who lost much of their livelihood lacked resources to upgrade their boats and so instead had to sell them to repay loans. Many of them then worked together to share a boat for fishing. This arrangement is helpful as returns are unpredictable, so the risk of labor and supplies is shared. But others left fishing and turned to the tourist trade for support. Some locals have engaged themselves as vendors around the popular tourist spots like Dandi in Navsari and Tithal in Valsad, which requires adaptability. For example, they regularly have to shift their location away from the beach during high tides (Figure 10, Figure 11).
About 200 local fishermen were interviewed to gather information (100 in Machhiwad and 100 in Nani Danti). Figure 12, shows the major reasons given changing the fishing occupation. Four major reasons were highlighted in discussion. Forty percent of respondents felt that the lack of resources to sustain fishing was the primary reason for change of occupation. The boats needed regular repairs and upgrades to operate well and cost-effectively. But the returns coming from fishing were little and savings were near zero, so maintenance was impossible. This was sensed by 25 percent of the respondents. The land area has also been lost to erosion, or else it could have been used as an asset. Around 25 percent of the people felt that the evolving tourism sector could provide improved opportunities for livelihood for the future, so a decision to change happens, while, 10 percent of people stated health conditions to change their occupation.
The erosion observed in this part of Gujarat is significant, although neither continuous nor uniform. Significant loss of land has been observed especially in Valsad due to sediment erosion from the banks because of complex interactions between river flow, waves, and the tides. Overall, during the study periods, erosion was much greater than accretion. Storm surges and the constant pounding nature of the waves also caused serious damage to coastal structures in many places. The shoreline also had severe coastal erosion as the waves transported sand from beaches, dunes, and weakened coastal cliffs. The livelihoods of innumerable people in erosion-prone areas along the Navsari and Valsad coasts have been severely impacted. The lack of concrete development programs meant many families were forced to move to escape the impacts of coastal erosion. While there is still little response to environmental change and migration, there is sufficient evidence at the global and regional level demonstrating that coastal environment changes affect livelihoods of massive numbers of people and forces them to migrate when proactive actions are not taken (Rehman M.K., et.al., 2015). Instead population displacement has been addressed mostly as a post-disaster response. There is a need for more forward-looking national and local polices on environmental migration for coastal populations.